This section highlights where the Fathers had Absolute Unity (everyone agreed) and where there were Differing Thoughts (nuance, development, or sharp disagreement).
There is no dissenting voice among the Church Fathers on this issue. While the surrounding Roman culture practiced abortion and exposure (leaving unwanted infants to die), the early Christians were strictly pro-life from conception.
The Consensus:
Life begins at conception; abortion is murder; infanticide is murder.
Key Voices & Quotes:
The Didache (c. 100 AD)
"You shall not murder a child by abortion nor kill that which is born." (Ch. 2)
Epistle of Barnabas (c. 130 AD)
"You shall not slay the child by procuring abortion; nor, again, shall you destroy it after it is born." (19:5)
Athenagoras (c. 177 AD)
"We say that those who use drugs to bring on abortion commit murder, and will have to give an account to God for the abortion." (Plea for the Christians, 35)
Tertullian (c. 197 AD)
"To prevent birth is anticipated murder; it makes little difference whether one destroys a life already born or does away with it in its nascent stage. The one who will be a man is already a man." (Apology, 9:8)
The Fathers unanimously viewed the Eucharist as the actual body and blood of Christ, not a mere symbol. However, how they explained the change differed slightly between East and West.
The Consensus:
The bread and wine truly become the Body and Blood of Christ. It is a sacrifice.
Differing Thoughts:
Key Voices & Quotes:
Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 AD)
"They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ." (Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, 7)
Justin Martyr (c. 150 AD)
"For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these... so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed... is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh." (First Apology, 66)
Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350 AD)
"Do not see in the bread and wine merely natural elements... they are, according to the Lord's declaration, the Body and Blood of Christ." (Catechetical Lectures, 22:6)
Augustine (c. 400 AD)
"Christ was carried in his own hands when, referring to his own body, he said, 'This is my body.'" (Expositions on the Psalms, 33:1:10)
This is the area of greatest development. Early Fathers (Ante-Nicene) believed Jesus was God but sometimes struggled to explain how He wasn't a second God. Later Fathers (Post-Nicene) developed the precise vocabulary we use today.
Differing Thoughts (The Evolution):
Key Voices & Quotes:
Tertullian (c. 210 AD)
"All are of One, by unity of substance; while the mystery of the dispensation is still guarded, which distributes the Unity into a Trinity, placing in their order the three Persons—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." (Against Praxeas, 2)
Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 380 AD)
"No sooner do I conceive of the One than I am illumined by the Splendour of the Three; no sooner do I distinguish them than I am carried back to the One." (Oration 40)
The Fathers consistently rejected homosexual acts (usually referred to as "sodomy" or "unnatural passions" in their context), viewing them as a violation of natural law and the procreative purpose of sex.
The Consensus:
Sex is restricted to marriage (male/female) for procreation and unity. Homosexual acts are sinful.
Key Voices & Quotes:
Didache (c. 100 AD)
"You shall not commit murder, you shall not commit adultery, you shall not commit pederasty [sexual acts with boys], you shall not commit fornication." (Ch. 2)
John Chrysostom (c. 390 AD)
In his Homilies on Romans, he argues that homosexual acts are actually "worse" than murder in a spiritual sense because they degrade the nature of the soul itself, turning the body against its own purpose.
Augustine (c. 400 AD)
"Those shameful acts against nature, such as were committed in Sodom, ought everywhere and always to be detested and punished." (Confessions, 3.8.15)
All Fathers believed Baptism was necessary for salvation and actually washed away sin (Regeneration). The "symbol only" view is non-existent in the Patristic era. However, they fought over who could baptize.
The Consensus:
Baptism regenerates the soul and is necessary.
Differing Thoughts (The Great Controversy):
Re-Baptism? If a heretic baptizes you, is it valid?
Infant Baptism?
Key Voices & Quotes:
Justin Martyr (c. 150 AD)
"They are brought by us where there is water... for Christ also said, 'Except ye be born again, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.'" (First Apology, 61)
Cyprian (c. 250 AD)
"From the time that he has been baptized... he lives to God." (Letter 58)
Nicene Creed (381 AD)
"We confess one baptism for the remission of sins."
This is a major shift. In the 100s, gifts were common. By the 400s, they were viewed as things of the past or very rare.
The Evolution:
The Early Period (100–200 AD): Gifts are active.
The Turning Point (The Montanist Crisis):
A group called the Montanists claimed to have "New Prophecy." The Church condemned them. After this, the Church became very suspicious of "charismatic" behavior.
The Later Period (350+ AD):
Everyone agreed Jesus was God. The fight was about how his Divinity mixed with his Humanity.
The Schools:
The Conflict:
This exploded between Cyril and Nestorius.
The Resolution (Chalcedon, 451 AD):
"Two Natures, Inconfused, Unchangeable, Indivisible, Inseparable."
Worship:
It was Liturgical, not free-form.
Justin Martyr
Describes a structure: Readings → Sermon → Prayers → Kiss of Peace → Eucharist → Collection for Poor.
Cyril of Jerusalem
Describes high ceremony, incense, washing of hands, and structured responses.
Scripture (The Canon):
This is the most dramatic "before and after" in Patristic history, divided by the conversion of Emperor Constantine (312 AD). From pacifism to just war theory.
The Early View (Pre-Constantine):
Christians generally believed they could not serve in the Roman legions because it involved killing and swearing oaths to the Emperor as a god.
Justin Martyr
"We who formerly murdered one another now refrain from making war even upon our enemies." (First Apology, 39)
Tertullian
"The Lord, in disarming Peter, unbelted every soldier." (On Idolatry, 19)
Hippolytus
In his Apostolic Tradition, he writes that a soldier who converts must refuse to kill, and if ordered to do so, must refuse.
The Later View (Post-Constantine):
Once the Empire became Christian, the question became: "How do we defend the innocent from barbarians?" Ambrose & Augustine developed the Just War Theory.
Augustine
"Peace should be the object of your desire; war should be waged only as a necessity... in order that peace may be obtained." (Letter 189)
The Greek (Eastern) Fathers focused on human cooperation with God, while the Latin (Western) Fathers—specifically Augustine—focused on the inability of humans to save themselves.
The Eastern View (Synergy):
Humans are damaged by sin but retain Free Will. Salvation is a cooperation (synergeia) between God's Grace and Human Will.
John Chrysostom
"God does not draw us by force... He wishes all to be saved, but forces no one." (Homilies on Romans)
The Western View (Original Sin):
Humanity is a "mass of damnation" after Adam. We cannot choose God unless Grace first changes our will.
The Conflict
Pelagius (a British monk) taught that humans can stop sinning purely by willpower. Augustine crushed this idea, arguing that without Grace, we can do nothing.
Augustine
"God promises not to save people who live good lives, but to save people so that they can live good lives." (On Grace and Free Will)
The Fathers sound shockingly "socialist" to modern capitalist ears. They universally viewed surplus wealth as "theft" from the poor.
The Consensus:
Private property is legal, but hoarding it while others starve is a mortal sin.
Key Voices & Quotes:
Basil the Great
"The bread which you keep belongs to the hungry; the coat in your closet belongs to the naked... You are thus guilty of injustice toward as many as you might have aided." (Homily on Luke 12)
John Chrysostom
"Not to enable the poor to share in our goods is to steal from them and deprive them of life. The goods we hold are not ours, but theirs." (Homily on Lazarus)
Clement of Alexandria (The Moderate Voice)
In Who is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?, he argues that money is a tool. If you love it, it kills you. If you use it for good, it saves you.
The Fathers had to fight a two-front war: Against Gnostics (who said marriage/sex was evil) and Against Jovinian (who said marriage and celibacy were equal).
The Consensus:
Marriage is Silver; Virginity is Gold.
Key Voices & Quotes:
Jerome
The harshest critic. He famously compared marriage to vomiting (using scripture references). He believed marriage was only good because it produced more virgins.
Augustine
More balanced. He called marriage a "Sacrament" and defended its three goods: Offspring, Fidelity, and Sacrament.
Methodius
Wrote Symposium of the Ten Virgins, extolling the mystical marriage of the virgin soul to Christ.
The modern debate of "Sola Scriptura" (Bible Alone) vs. "Tradition" did not exist for them. They viewed Scripture as the content and Tradition as the interpretation.
The Consensus:
You cannot understand the Bible outside the Church. Heretics quote the Bible too, but they twist it. Tradition is the "Rule of Faith" that keeps interpretation correct.
Key Voices & Quotes:
Tertullian
In Prescription Against Heretics, he argues that you shouldn't even debate Scripture with heretics. You should ask: "Whose Bible is it?" The Church owns the book, so only the Church can interpret it.
Irenaeus
Describes Tradition as the "living voice" of the Apostles preserved in the succession of bishops.
Vincent of Lérins
Gave the rule for Truth: "What has been believed everywhere, always, and by all."
The Fathers affirmed women were equal possessors of the Image of God (unlike some pagan philosophers), but strictly forbade them from the priesthood based on Paul's writings.
The Consensus:
Women are equal in holiness (many great female martyrs/saints), but the priesthood is reserved for men.
Key Voices:
The "Deaconess" Question
The Early Church did ordain Deaconesses (like Phoebe in Romans 16). The Constitution of the Holy Apostles explicitly gives prayers for ordaining deaconesses, primarily to assist in baptizing women (for modesty reasons).
Tertullian
Infamously harsh: "Do you not know that you are each an Eve?... You are the devil's gateway." (On the Apparel of Women). (Note: He was writing to urge women to dress modestly).
Gregory of Nyssa
Wrote The Life of Macrina (his sister), calling her "The Teacher" and implying she was spiritually superior to both him and Basil.
While most taught eternal punishment, a significant and intellectual minority hoped for the salvation of all.
The Majority View (Eternal Hell):
John Chrysostom
Frequently preached on the terrors of hell to wake up his congregation.
Augustine
Argued that "eternal" in Matthew 25 must mean "everlasting," or else heaven wouldn't be everlasting either.
The Minority View (Apokatastasis - Restoration):
Origen
Speculated that God's love would eventually purge all evil, even from Satan.
Gregory of Nyssa
"After the body has been purified... the soul will be restored to its original state." (Catechetical Oration)
The Outcome
The "Universalist" view was formally condemned in 553 AD, but the hope for it remained in some Eastern mystical traditions.
Early Christians expected Jesus to return any minute to set up a literal kingdom. As time dragged on, the Church shifted to viewing the "Kingdom" as the Church age itself.
The Early View (Chiliasm / Premillennialism):
The belief that Jesus will return before a literal 1000-year reign on earth.
Justin Martyr and Irenaeus
Were staunch "Chiliasts." They believed the world would last 6,000 years, followed by a 1,000-year "Sabbath" reign of Christ.
"The righteous must first rise again... and practice for incorruption in the kingdom... and [then] they shall truly practice communion with God." (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 5.35)
The Later View (Amillennialism):
The "1000 years" in Revelation is symbolic of the current Church age. Christ is reigning now in heaven.
Augustine
Killed Chiliasm. In The City of God, he argued that reading Revelation literally was "carnal." His view became the standard for both Catholic and Orthodox churches for 1,500 years.
The early church was Jewish in roots and wary of idolatry. But as they reflected on the Incarnation (God becoming visible), their view on art changed completely.
The Early Hostility (Pre-300 AD):
Clement of Alexandria
"We are forbidden to exercise that deceitful art: 'Thou shalt not make any likeness of anything...'" (Protrepticus, 4)
Council of Elvira (305 AD)
Banned paintings on church walls so that "what is worshipped and adored be not painted on walls."
The Later Defense (The Iconophiles):
Because God became a man (Jesus), he can be depicted. To say you can't paint Jesus is to deny he had a real body (Gnosticism).
John of Damascus (c. 730 AD)
"I do not worship matter, I worship the God of matter, who became matter for my sake... I boldly draw an image of the invisible God, not as invisible, but as having become visible for our sakes." (Three Treatises on the Divine Images)
This is the biggest theological difference between the Western (Catholic/Protestant) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches today.
The Western View (Inherited Guilt):
Augustine
When Adam sinned, human nature was fundamentally broken. Every baby is born with the guilt of Adam and is technically "damned" without baptism.
"Nothing has been preached... more earnestly than that... we are all born with a nature corrupted by the sin of the first man." (On the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins)
The Eastern View (Inherited Mortality):
Chrysostom & Cyril
We inherit Death and Sickness from Adam, but not his personal Guilt. We sin because we are mortal and weak, not because we are born guilty.
"We are baptized... not because we are sinners [as babies], but that we might receive the gift of immortality." (Theodore of Mopsuestia)
Despite modern debates, the Church Fathers were unanimous that Christians worship on Sunday ("The Eighth Day"), not the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday).
The Consensus:
The Sabbath was a shadow; the Resurrection (Sunday) is the reality.
Key Voices:
Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 AD)
"No longer observing the Sabbath, but living in the observance of the Lord's Day." (Letter to the Magnesians, 9)
Epistle of Barnabas (c. 130 AD)
"We keep the eighth day with joyfulness, the day also on which Jesus rose again from the dead." (Chapter 15)
Justin Martyr
Explicitly states that Christians gather on the "Day of the Sun" because it is the first day of creation and the day of resurrection.
What started as respect for martyrs' bones quickly turned into a belief that the Saints could pray for the living and that their physical remains held power.
The Development:
Martyrdom of Polycarp (c. 155 AD)
"We took up his bones, which are more valuable than precious stones... and laid them in a suitable place."
Jerome (c. 400 AD)
Defended the practice against a critic named Vigilantius. Jerome argued we do not worship (latria) martyrs, we honor (dulia) them, and because they are with Christ, their prayers are powerful.
Augustine
Recorded miracles of healing performed by the relics of St. Stephen when they arrived in Africa.
In the New Testament, "Bishop" (Episkopos) and "Elder" (Presbyter) seem interchangeable. By 150 AD, they were distinct ranks.
The "Mono-Episcopacy" (One Bishop to Rule Them All):
Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 AD)
The first to aggressively argue that the Bishop is the representative of God. "Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop."
Jerome (c. 400 AD)
Admitted that originally bishops and elders were the same, but the Church elevated Bishops to prevent schisms (arguments).
The nearly universal consensus of the Fathers was "Supersessionism"—the belief that the Church has replaced ethnic Israel as God's chosen people because Israel rejected the Messiah.
The Consensus:
The "Old Israel" (Jews) was a preparation; the "New Israel" (The Church) is the fulfillment. The Mosaic Law is abrogated (cancelled).
Key Voices & Quotes:
Justin Martyr (c. 160 AD)
In his Dialogue with Trypho (a Jew), he argues: "We are the true Israel of God, who have been torn out of the belly of Christ." He claims the Covenant has passed entirely to Christians.
Epistle of Barnabas (c. 130 AD)
Goes even further, arguing that the Jews never really understood their own Law (e.g., circumcision was meant to be of the heart, not the flesh, from the very beginning).
Augustine (The "Witness" Doctrine)
While he agreed the Church replaced Israel, he argued that Jews must not be killed or forced to convert. He taught that they are "Witnesses" to the Old Testament prophecies and their survival is a testimony to God's truth.
The Fathers moved quickly from seeing Mary as a "type" of the Church to venerating her personal holiness.
Stage 1: The New Eve (2nd Century)
Irenaeus & Justin Martyr
Just as Eve disobeyed and brought death, Mary obeyed ("Let it be done to me") and brought Life. "The knot of Eve's disobedience was loosed by the obedience of Mary." (Against Heresies)
Stage 2: The Mother of God (Theotokos) (4th-5th Century)
Cyril of Alexandria
If Mary is only the mother of the human Jesus, then God didn't really save us. She must be the Mother of God. This became official dogma at Ephesus (431 AD).
Stage 3: Perpetual Virginity (4th Century+)
Jerome & Augustine
Strongly defended the idea that Mary remained a virgin after Jesus' birth (the "brethren" of Jesus were cousins or Joseph's children from a prior marriage). Jerome wrote Against Helvidius specifically to destroy the argument that Mary had other children.
If you want to see the Fathers get truly angry, read them on banking. They unanimously condemned charging any interest on loans, equating it with theft and exploitation of the poor.
The Consensus:
If you lend, you expect nothing back. Making money from time (interest) is a sin against nature.
Key Voices & Quotes:
Basil the Great
"You demand interest from a poor man? If he had money, he would not have asked for a loan... You are making profit from his misery." (Homily on Psalm 14)
Gregory of Nyssa
"He who takes interest is a thief and a robber."
Leo the Great
"It is unjust that the fruit of another's labor should become the gain of the lazy."
While they agreed on the 4 Gospels early on, the Old Testament list was messy. The East generally preferred the shorter Hebrew Canon, while the West preferred the longer Greek Canon.
The "Hebrew Verity" Camp:
Jerome
When translating the Vulgate, he wanted to stick to the Hebrew Bible. He called the extra books "Apocrypha" and said they were good for reading but not for doctrine.
Athanasius
Also listed a shorter canon, putting books like Wisdom and Sirach in a secondary "to be read" category.
The "Septuagint" Camp:
Augustine
Argued that because the Church uses the Greek Septuagint (which includes the extra books), they are inspired. He pushed for their inclusion at the Council of Carthage (397 AD).
The Outcome
The West generally followed Augustine (Catholic Canon), while the East maintained a distinction between "Canonical" and "Readable" books, eventually settling on a longer canon than even the Catholics.
Now that you understand where the Fathers agreed and disagreed, explore their writings and discover the depth of their theological insights.